The past months have shown how vulnerable human life can be. Many are faced with the harsh consequences of a lockdown due to the pandemic. This lockdown is not a local but a global phenomenon. Some countries are still hit hard, other countries seem to have the situation somewhat under control, for the time being. Social distancing is the least of the troubles that accompany the visitation of the coronavirus.
When circumstances are bleak, people tend to seek signs of hope, for some hint that life will regain its normal course. There is the idea that religious traditions would offer some form of consolation, some ways of coping with loss, illness, (mortal) fear, adversity, in short, real suffering. This suffering not only hits those who fall victim to the virus but also everyone who is affected by the illness of near and dear ones, as well as the economic effects of a lockdown for months on end. People do not only die of the illness itself but also of starvation or economic deprivation. These are difficult times, more so for those who are poor than for those who still have enough resources to sit out the lockdown.
It is under such circumstances that religious traditions must show their worth or usefulness. This is true of almost all great world religions including Hinduism. Hinduism is very vast, like an ocean. Thus, it is certainly challenging to dive into the ocean of Hinduism, to emerge with the pearls we encounter; pearls that give new brightness to broken lives. And there is a lot from which to choose.
Hindu systems of thinking
Let us start with a more philosophical approach, which is the approach adopted by certain popular forms of Hindu philosophy such as Sāṃkhya, Nyāya, Vedānta and Yoga. It may not be for nothing that human suffering has been the central point of departure for many ancient Indian theologies (Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain).
These are more aptly called soteriologies. A soteriology is a set of doctrines pointing the way to liberation; or put differently: a soteriology explains methods to reach freedom from suffering. What is perhaps already an immediate source of hopefulness is the fact that these Indian doctrines start from the premise that alleviation of suffering is possible. I will limit myself in what follows to the Hindu systems of thought that are of direct interest to the readership of this magazine.
The underlying idea of Hindu theories of liberation like Sāṃkhya, Nyāya, Vedānta and Yoga is twofold: (1) the doctrine of karma or the retribution of good and bad actions undertaken by the individual; (2) the doctrine that everything in the cosmos is linked through chains of cause and effect. The latter means that bad results now, can be counteracted by individual acts leading to a better result in the future. In fact, almost no Hindu system of thought knows of random happenings willed by a Supreme Being. The cosmos is basically logical and, thus to an extent, predictable. This leaves room for many things that we cannot or do not know and which may or may not happen. Still one might argue that Hindu systems of thinking help an individual to regain at least some sense of control over his or her personal life and life crises.
This said, the more philosophical or religious way does not primarily consist of the removal of physical pain or illness. For the latter, one needs good science and a well-run system of healthcare. What the Indian soteriologies do address, however, is the psychological effects of physical suffering. They offer the individual seeker a method to cope with, and make meaning from, what is unavoidable or incurable. This is morally wise and compassionate. One should not offer the one who suffers impossible or unlikely consolation.
The Sāṃkhyakārikā (verse 1), which describes one of the earliest Indian soteriologies, posits right at the beginning that man is afflicted by three types of suffering: (1) illnesses and dissatisfaction, (2) things that others do to you, (3) floods, earthquakes and the like. Each cause of suffering has one or more means by which we can manage or eliminate it such as medical science, avoiding contact with painful things and being on one’s guard in case of a natural calamity. But the ultimate removal of suffering rests in the mind, through developing the ability to understand the difference between consciousness, on the one hand, and the surrounding world on the other. The old Sāṃkhya-system proposes that we deeply analyse our own consciousness. This analysis will show in the end that consciousness and its objects are not the same. Suffering is an outer thing, after all. The causes of suffering that can be removed need not affect our deepest layer of consciousness.
Deep-seated frustrations are a more tough nut to crack. And here the spiritual techniques of Nyāya and Yoga can be helpful. The Nyāya Sūtra (1.1.2) states the following: ‘Final liberation [from continuous rebirth] is effected by the elimination of false knowledge, moral flaws, worldly activity, birth, and suffering. One makes them disappear one after the other.’ Thus it prescribes that final liberation from suffering requires abandoning excessive action, abandoning much talk and abandoning much mental activity. Furthermore, one should give up inordinate desires, strong aversions, and delusion. Finally, one should aim to acquire true knowledge. But the Nyāya Sūtra also stresses that true knowledge of ultimate spiritual concern is gained through the practice of meditation as taught in the Yoga schools: ‘[True knowledge is gained] through practising a high degree of [meditational] concentration [of the mind] (4.2.38)’. Furthermore, it says in 4.2.42: ‘There is the instruction that one should practice spiritual disciplines (yoga) in [lonely places like] woods, caves, or the banks of rivers etc.’ The oldest basic meaning of Yoga has been ‘spiritual discipline’. The Yoga Sūtra (1.2) defines this spiritual discipline in general as the restriction or suppression of mental processes. When successfully done, one’s consciousness abides in its own true form. What would give a perspective of optimism and joyful expectation is the fact that one’s consciousness is never outside one’s own reach. We do not have consciousness, basically and fundamentally we are our own consciousness. This is a perspective that does not require dogma or belief to immediately see. Acquiring such a perspective on life is perhaps not easy because we must unlearn a lot, and yet it is also not impossible or beyond the reach of an average person.
Devotional approaches
Hindu soteriologies are meant for highly intellectually minded people. Hinduism has always had many other ways to convey the same messages to a broader audience. One of the ways to offer the perspective of philosophy to the masses is in the form of narratives and stories. Some of these are very well-known like the great epic Mahābhārata. Another extremely well-known and popular story is the epic Rāmāyaṇa which tells of Prince Rāma and his brothers. Perhaps equally popular is the cycle of stories about Kṛṣṇa. Among the source-texts about Kṛṣṇa the Bhāgavata Purāṇa takes pride of place. Its tenth book is beloved among many Hindus, as it narrates the life-story of Kṛṣṇa with a special emphasis on his pastimes in rural Vṛndāvana (Vrindavan near Mathura in the state of UP, India). One might say that what soteriologies like Sāṃkhya, Yoga and Vedānta teach in abstract form, the devotional stories in the sacred narratives like Bhāgavata Purāṇa illustrate with examples and lyrical descriptions of the great deeds of the Supreme God Kṛṣṇa. These narratives show, if anything, that we’ re not entirely on our own when we are facing crises. Somehow or other, the Divinity in which our own consciousness takes part, is always with us. Even the God Brahmā, the architect of the universe, does not fully realise this, as is described in Bhāgavata Purāṇa, book ten, chapters 13 and 14. He praises Kṛṣṇa with numerous verses among which the following are illustrative of the greatness, mercy and omnipresence of Kṛṣṇa:
‘O universal one, it is possible for you, whose greatness is free from the Guṇas, to be known from personal experience by those whose souls are pure. This is accomplished through the essential nature of the self [ātmā], which can be known only by itself, and by no other means, for it is unchangeable and formless.
The sand of the earth, the snow in the sky and the rays of light in the heavens can be counted, in the course of time, by those who are highly skilled. But, although you are the essence of all qualities, who is able to count your qualities? You have descended [to earth] for the welfare of this world.
Therefore, one who contemplates your compassion accepts the ripened fruits of personal karma that have been accumulated offers obeisance to you with heart, words and body; receives your mercy and lives in a state of liberation.’
(Book 10.14.6-8, translation Edwin F. Bryant: Krishna: The Beautiful Legend of God. Penguin Books. 2003)
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